Farrell, TA; Marion, JL

Environmental Conservation [Environ. Conserv.]. Vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 215-225. Sep 2001.

Protected area visitation is an important component of ecotourism, and as such, must be sustainable. However, protected area visitation may degrade natural resources, particularly in areas of concentrated visitor activities like trails and recreation sites. This is an important concern in ecotourism destinations such as Belize and Costa Rica, because they actively promote ecotourism and emphasize the pristine qualities of their natural resources. Research on visitor impacts to protected areas has many potential applications in protected area management, though it has not been widely applied in Central and South America. This study targeted this deficiency through manager interviews and evaluations of alternative impact assessment procedures at eight protected areas in Belize and Costa Rica. Impact assessment procedures included qualitative condition class systems, ratings systems, and measurement-based systems applied to trails and recreation sites. The resulting data characterize manager perceptions of impact problems, document trail and recreation site impacts, and provide examples of inexpensive, efficient and effective rapid impact assessment procedures. Interview subjects reported a variety of impacts affecting trails, recreation sites, wildlife, water, attraction features and other resources. Standardized assessment procedures were developed and applied to record trail and recreation site impacts. Impacts affecting the study areas included trail proliferation, erosion and widening, muddiness on trails, vegetation cover loss, soil and root exposure, and tree damage on recreation sites. The findings also illustrate the types of assessment data yielded by several alternative methods and demonstrate their utility to protected area managers. The need for additional rapid assessment procedures for wildlife, water, attraction feature and other resource impacts was also identified.

Gulinck, H; Vyverman, N; Van Bouchout, K; Gobin, A

Landscape and Urban Planning [Landscape Urban Plann.]. Vol. 53, no. 1-4, pp. 173-182. 30 Jan 2001.

Ecotourism can be a solution for mitigating the negative environmental and socio-economic impacts of new developments in fragile environments. Before planning an ecotourist project, it is necessary to consider an area that not only covers the margins of the development zone, but also a wider perimeter of physically and culturally related landscape parts. This paper describes an approach to the demarcation and analysis of an expanded zone around a new reservoir near Bulawayo, larger than an originally designated narrow natural fringe. The concept gains in many ways, in landscape diversity, in cultural assets and in interaction with local residents to whom ecotourisms should be profitable in the first place.

Walpole, MJ; Goodwin, HJ

Environmental Conservation [Environ. Conserv.]. Vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 160-166. Jun 2001.

Ensuring local support for protected areas is increasingly viewed as an important element of biodiversity conservation. This is often predicated on the provision of benefits from protected areas, and a common means of providing such benefits is tourism development. However, the relationship between receipt of tourism benefits and support for conservation has not been explored. This study examined local attitudes towards protected area tourism and the effects of tourism benefits on local support for Komodo National Park, Indonesia. Komodo National Park is a flagship for tourism in a region where protected areas are becoming increasingly visited and where local support for conservation has not been investigated. Results of a questionnaire survey revealed positive attitudes towards tourism and high support for conservation (93.7%), as well as a recognition that tourism is dependent upon the existence of the park. Positive attitudes towards tourism were positively related to the receipt of economic benefits, and to support for conservation. However, a positive relationship between receipt of tourism benefits and support for conservation was not identified, suggesting that benefits from protected area conservation make no difference to local support for conservation. Local people recognized distributional inequalities in tourism benefits, and the most common complaints were of local inflation and tourist dress code. To fully identify the impacts of protected area tourism, long-term studies of local attitudes alongside traditional economic and ecological assessments are recommended.

Hearne, R; Salinas, Z

Journal of Environmental Management [J. Environ. Manage.]. Vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 153-163. Jun 2002.

Many nations promote nature-based tourism in order to promote the dual goals of nature conservation and income generation. To be most effective in providing services that facilitate achievement of these goals, decision makers will need to understand and incorporate tourist preferences for nature appreciation, infrastructure, use restrictions, and other attributes of national parks and protected areas. This paper presents the use of choice experiments as a mechanism to analyze preferences of national and international tourists in relation to the development of Barva Volcano Area in Costa Rica. In this section of the Braulio Carrillo National Park, managers are faced with an immediate need to plan for greatly increased visitation rates due to a new road, which will greatly improve access. Choice sets were developed in collaboration with park managers. A survey was conducted of 171 Costa Rican and 271 foreign tourists who visited Poas Volcano, a well-visited alternative site to Barva Volcano. Survey data was analyzed using conditional multinomial logit models. Results of the study demonstrate, that both sets of tourists preferred: (i) improved infrastructure; (ii) aerial trams with observation towers and picnic areas; (iii) more information; and (iv) low entrance fees. Foreign tourists demonstrated strong preferences for the inclusion of restrictions in the access to some trails, whereas Costa Ricans did not show any significant preference for restrictions. Marginal willingness-to-pay for greater information was estimated to be $1.54 for foreign tourists and $1.01 for Costa Rican visitors. The study concludes that choice experiments are a useful tool in the analyses of tourist preferences for the development of protected areas in developing countries. Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Salafsky, N*; Cauley, H; Balachander, G; Cordes, B; Parks, J; Margoluis, C; Bhatt, S; Encarnacion, C; Russell, D; Margoluis, R

Conservation Biology [Conserv. Biol.]. Vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 1585-1595. Dec 2001.

A commonly held belief is that if people can benefit financially from enterprises that depend on nearby forests, reefs, and other natural habitats, then they will take action to conserve and sustainably use them. The Biodiversity Conservation Network brought together conservation and development organizations and local communities to systematically test this hypothesis across 39 conservation project sites in Asia and the Pacific. Each project implemented one or more community-based enterprises such as setting up an ecotourism lodge, distilling essential oils from wild plant roots, producing jams and jellies from forest fruits, harvesting timber, or collecting marine samples to test for pharmaceutical compounds. Each project team collected the biological, enterprise, and social data necessary to test the network's hypothesis. We present the results of this test. We found that a community-based enterprise strategy can lead to conservation, but only under limited conditions and never on its own. We summarize the specific conditions under which an enterprise strategy will and will not work in a decision chart that can be used by project managers to determine whether this strategy might make sense at their site. We also found that an enterprise strategy can be subsidized and still create a net gain that pays for conservation. Based on our experiences, we recommend developing "learning portfolios' that combine action and research to test other conservation strategies.

Kirkpatrick, JB

Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand [J. R. Soc. N. Z.]. Vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 819-829. Dec 2001.

The existence of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (WHA) is not only a testimony to its undoubted outstanding universal natural and cultural significance, but also a reflection of a national feeling that its wild places and wild rivers should be maintained for future generations, rather than expended in hydroelectric, forestry, and pastoral development. The issue in the establishment and expansion of the WHA was economic development or none. In the cases of power, wood, and wool production the nays succeeded convincingly. The coalition that promoted the WHA consisted largely of wilderness recreationalists and natural scientists, leading to a feeling, and partial actuality, of dispossession on the part of those recreationalists, such as shooters, anglers, off-road vehicle enthusiasts, and horse riders, who defined themselves as traditional users. Recreationalists who were within the coalition, mainly bushwalkers, climbers, cavers, and rafters, have had increasing effects on the natural values of the WHA, to the degree to which limitation of some of their activities seems necessary to maintain WHA values. Yet, any such controls have been strongly resisted. Tourism developers, traditional recreationalists, and many coalition recreationalists all wish to maintain or increase activities that are in conflict with the maintenance of the values of the WHA and/or with each other. The current management plan attempted to resolve these conflicts through compromises that do not substantially affect the values, but which lack any effective mechanisms for accountability on the part of the management agency and its minister. Despite a prolonged and complicated developmental approval process, there is no means whereby the public may appeal a ministerial decision on the grounds that it is in conflict with the general objectives of the plan. This is particularly alarming given progressive commercialisation of activities in the WHA. The WHA will continue to effectively conserve and present its values if the general public sympathy for its maintenance is expressed through an effective appeals process. There is also no reason why the minority of developers and the public who are not sympathetic to all aspects of the maintenance of its values, should not gain some benefits from the area, within the constraints of ecological sustainability.

Walters, RDM; Samways, MJ

Biodiversity and Conservation [Biodivers. Conserv.]. Vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 2167-2179. Dec 2001.

SCUBA ecotourism provides economic support for local human communities and for conservation. Such support should be sustainable and as ecologically non-destructive as possible to its coral reef foundation. In recent years, the major increase in SCUBA activity has become a significant consideration at some locations. Among these are the South African coral reefs at Sodwana Bay, which receive 80 000 dives per year. Between May 1998 and January 1999, assessments using line-intercept and belt transects showed that 5.9% of hard corals and 4.0% of soft corals were damaged from various causes, while only 0.02% of the hard corals were dead. Of the 222 diver contacts observed, only 1.63% produced instant and visually-clear damage, with no measurable decline in overall coral reef health. Direct observations on 89 recreational divers showed that photographers made damaging contacts on nine out of ten dives, while novice divers made one such contact per six dives, moderately experienced divers about once every 14 dives, and very experienced divers about once every 123 dives. Increased time lapsed since the last dive increased diver damage by novices. We calculated that the 80000 dives were equivalent to 1 m super(2) of reef receiving 2.3 diver contacts per year. Acropora austera was by far the most significantly damaged coral, with one out of four branches broken per year. But as this species accounted for only 0.2% of reef benthos cover, this impact was not representative of overall reef health. This heavy species-specific impact makes A. austera a good bio-monitor.

Loubser, GJJ; Mouton, PLe FN; Nel, JAJ

South African Journal of Wildlife Research [S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res.]. Vol. 31, no. 1-2, pp. 13-23. 2001.

Namaqualand, with its seasonal wild flower blooms, is a popular attraction for ecotourists, but in addition it is also home to the greatest diversity of snakes and lizards in South Africa. The present study explores the potential of herpetofauna as an additional ecotourism resource, complimenting the existing wild flower-based tourism. Tourist opinion was determined by means of questionnaires. Results from 880 respondents indicated that tourists visit Namaqualand predominantly to view the wild flowers, but as many as 67% of the respondents indicated that information on herpetofauna will add value to their experience of the area. Seventy-one percent of respondents saw lizards while looking at the flowers. They also indicated that the present supply of information is inadequate and that they are prepared to pay a reasonable price for brochures with quality information. The preferred method to receive information is in the form of brochures and an information centre. It was clear from the questionnaires that opportunities exist for cultural tourism to be developed and this should be explored. Our study is intended to assist with the planning and management of the newly proclaimed Namaqua National Park, and emphasizes the importance of supplying information on the fauna, flora and cultural aspects of the area. By supplying information and actively marketing herpetofauna of the area, the tourist season will be extended and diversified and the experience of ecotourists visiting the area, enhanced. In turn, increased public awareness of the herpetofauna will contribute to its conservation.

Kepe, T

South African Journal of Wildlife Research [S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res.]. Vol. 31, no. 3-4, pp. 155-159. 2001.

Tourism to areas of natural beauty has recently been seen as one of the fastest growing interests in many countries around the world. This brand of tourism also encompasses celebrating and sharing with tourists the uniqueness and diversity of different cultures in areas visited. Through a case study of current tourism trends in Mkambati Nature Reserve on the Wild Coast, where an ambitious ecotourism project under the auspices of the Spatial Development Initiative (SDI) is planned, this paper attempts to emphasize the role played by local visitors in making ecotourism a success or failure. The study found that local tourists are currently the majority of visitors to Mkambati Nature Reserve. It also shows that while unimpressed with infrastructure and other services, local tourists are prepared to spend money to enjoy the quietness that is offered by protected environments. However, local tourists to Mkambati are not as enthusiastic about visiting and sharing experiences in adjacent rural areas. If based on current trends, then planning of ecotourism ventures should, at least initially, be based on local visitors' patterns.

Hsu, Chinng-Hsin; Wu, Tsung-Chiung; Chuang, Ching-Ta; Chen, Che-Tsung; Ho, Tain-Chun

6th Asian Fisheries Forum Book of Abstracts. p. 102. 2001.

The tourists and travellers m Taiwan have increased in recent years with the increasing leisure time. Existing tourist spots in Taiwan are no longer satisfying the demands of travellers, and people started to turn to off-shore islands and maritime activities for recreation and leisure. This paper studies the ocean-going tourism activities in the Pescadores Island. Ecological, cultural, and historic tourism as well as the scenic routes that the travel industry has laid out for the travellers are examined. Through the case study on operation and management of Green Turtle Protected Area, key success factors that attribute to the development of the Protected Area are analysed. Questionnaires and on-site surveys are conducted to understand the economic impacts, tourist behaviour and recreational value of Wang-An Island Green Turtle Protected Area. Travel cost method and contingent value method, are applied to evaluate the visitors' willingness-to-pay, economic and recreational benefits to the local economy and visitors are estimated. Policy implication and decision support that balance resource conservation and sustainable development are suggested to determine a well-designed Island eco-tourism.

Alexander, SE

Environmental Conservation [Environ. Conserv.]. Vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 341-350. Dec 2000.

The Community Baboon Sanctuary is held by the Belizean government to be a model for participatory ecotourism development. Membership in the Sanctuary is voluntary and involves a commitment to protect riverine resources as habitat for black howler monkeys (Alouatta nigra). While most local residents understand the intrinsic, aesthetic and material values of this important resource and recognize that protection of it can provide opportunities for promoting ecotourism activities in their communities, some members are dissatisfied with the project and threaten to withdraw their membership. This study aimed to define residents' feelings about resource protection in their communities and their attitudes toward management of the Sanctuary. Member and non-member households were surveyed, representing three of the eight villages located within the Sanctuary boundaries; 74% of the sample were member households and 26% were non-member. Although the howlers had increased in number since the Sanctuary's establishment, many residents felt that neither their households nor themselves were benefiting. Some Sanctuary members argued that management was not well organized and that benefits to communities and individuals were not evenly distributed. Key issues included the extent and nature of benefits to local residents, perceptions regarding management capabilities, and how management is responding to these issues. While these problems existed, the majority of residents did not want the Sanctuary abolished and strongly supported maintaining Sanctuary status. They might not be reaping benefits directly, but they admitted their lives were no worse off than before and they recognized that some members were benefiting. They had hope that they, too, would be able to eventually take part in some type of tourism business. For long-term local support to be assured, management must orient its work to more directly address those factors that influence residents' attitudes about the project, namely, the extent of local participation, representative organization, sound management structure, effective management capabilities, fair employment allocation, and education opportunities for community residents regarding the howlers, protection of their habitat, and the value of resource conservation.

Maharana, I; Rai, SC; Sharma, E

Environmental Conservation [Environ. Conserv.]. Vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 269-277. Sep 2000.

Although monetary valuation of natural ecosystems is difficult, such valuation helps to draw attention to their importance, and highlight conservation needs, especially in developing countries. The recreational value of Khecheopalri, a lake situated in the West District of Sikkim State, India, which has recreational, biodiversity and sacredness values, was assessed. The demand curve function for recreation increased with decreases in travel cost and distance for Sikkimese visitors. The recreational value of the lake was similar to other protected sites in India; however, all these sites had very low values compared to sites elsewhere in the world. Willingness to pay for maintenance and preservation of the lake by all types of visitors ranged from US$0.88 for members of the local community to US$7.19 for international tourists. The lake showed high recreational/sacredness values that were attributed to conservation of the site for biodiversity and pilgrimage. A large number of lakes in the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region, if properly managed and marketed for ecotourism, can bring economic development that can be linked with conservation.

Wunder, S

Ecological Economics [Ecol. Econ.]. Vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 465-479. Mar 2000.

Within the new array of 'green' products and services, ecotourism claims to combine environmental responsibility with the generation of local economic benefits that will have both a development impact and serve as conservation incentives. Economic incentives are imperative for nature conservation, particularly in remote and ill-monitored regions where a weak presence of the state hinders the use of alternative tools of environmental regulation. In the following, the link between tourism, local benefits and conservation is conceptualised and analysed empirically, using data from the Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve in the Ecuadorian Amazon region, near the border of Colombia and Peru. Three Cuyabeno indigenous groups have developed different modes of tourism participation, ranging from autonomous operations to pure salary employment. A quantification of local cash flows from tourism allows for a comparative analysis of income structure, spending, and the impacts on local development and on conservation attitudes. It is concluded that in the whole study area, tourism has actually provided significant additional income. Counter to common belief, the mode of participation is less decisive for local income generation than the tourist attraction of the natural site, the degree of tourism specialisation and the level of local organisation. However, as a conservation incentive, the effectiveness of tourism income depends on the incentive structure inherent in the mode of participation, and on the substitution versus complementarity of other productive activities: only if tourism changes labour and land allocation decisions, will it have a local conservation impact. It is discussed under which circumstances the conjectured link between tourism, local incomes and conservation is likely to be effective. This leads to some general lessons for government policies, for the design of integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs), and to a number of site-specific recommendations for improving incentive structures

Young, EH

Human Ecology [Hum. Ecol.]. Vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 581-620. Dec 1999.

This paper uses a political ecology approach to examine whether ecotourism along the Pacific Coast of the Baja California peninsula in Mexico promotes stewardship of marine resources, which have been devastated in recent years by uncontrolled commercial harvesting. This case illustrates how conflicts over access to common-pool resources that fueled the demise of area fisheries are now emerging in the rapidly growing industry of recreational whale watching. Even if ecotourism provides a significant new source of income through environmentally friendly, nonconsumptive resource use, it may not be sufficient to discourage local people from engaging in other, more destructive forms of consumptive resource use. But resource conflicts may not preclude efforts to promote conservation through ecotourism. Along the shores of Baja's gray whale calving lagoons there are nascent, community-based organizations that could serve as vehicles for mobilizing local people into conservation efforts, if local access rights to marine resources were both secure and accorded preference over outside claims to the same.

Wilkie, DS; Carpenter, JF

Oryx [Oryx]. Vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 332-338. Oct 1999.

In the debt-ridden, high-population-growth, resource-mining states of the Congo Basin, conservation of biodiversity is seldom the primary concern of national policy makers or of local resource users. Moreover, the recurring costs of managing protected areas and the opportunity costs of forgoing logging and farming to maintain protected areas are a substantial net drain on national and local economies. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important that protected areas generate, from user fees or donor contributions, sufficient funds to offset the costs of maintaining them. Government and donor investment currently meet less than 30 per cent of the estimated recurring costs required to manage the protected-area network within central African countries effectively, and cover none of the growing opportunity costs. Nature tourism, the fastest growing sector of the $US3 trillion (3 million million) a year global tourism industry, may offer a source of revenue to help fill this gap in funds. Congo Basin national parks and reserves harbour many charismatic animals (okapi, lowland gorilla, mandrills, bongo, forest elephant) that are likely to attract tourists, and as a result many protected-area managers are sinking capital into the development of tourist infrastructure. This paper reviews the evidence for ecotourism's capacity to generate revenue for protected-area management and appraises the financial viability of nature tourism in the Congo Basin.

Tershy, BR; Bourillon, L; Metzler, L; Barnes, J

Environmental Conservation [Environ. Conserv.]. Vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 212-217. Sep 1999.

The >150 islands in north-western Mexico are relatively pristine, but may easily be damaged by unregulated human use. Tourists visit many of these islands, but their numbers and impact are unknown. To examine some of the costs and benefits of ecotourism we sent a questionnaire to 42 ecotourism companies that visit islands in north-western Mexico; 29 respondents reported that tourist days on these islands had increased at >7% yr super(-1), from <15 000 in 1986 to about 47 000 in 1993. Neither government regulation nor cost of trips were reported to be important impediments to tourism growth. In 1993, ecotourist organizations visiting islands reported spending US$3.7 million, none of which went directly to the protection and management of the islands. We provide several management options to increase the conservation benefits of ecotourism and minimize the negative impacts.

Muruke, MHS; Mgaya, YD; Howell, KM; Semesi, AK

Coastal resources of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania. pp. 93-104. 1999.

The contribution of tourism to the Tanzania economy has been increasing since the mid-1980's. However, coastal tourism is generally not well developed. Tourism is a potentially important income-generating activity, but unless well planned and strictly controlled, it brings with it many complex problems which may have serious and long-lasting negative impacts on the natural and human environment. Addressing these requires multi- and cross-sectoral management policies and legislation. Negative environmental effects caused by the activities associated with tourism at Bagamoyo, Tanzania include the clearance of mangrove forests for beach access. In some cases, conflicts resource use have also resulted from hotel construction. It is also anticipated that rapid hotel development will be accompanied by serious problems related to the proper disposal of sewage and domestic waste. These will be exacerbated by the general lack of infrastructure and insufficient institutional and financial resources to enforce even existing legislation. The potential effects of tourism for Bagamoyo District are highlighted, areas of concern pointed out and recommendations for sustainable tourism suggested. These issues are especially relevant because Tanzania is currently re-defining its tourism policy, elements of which include both mass-oriented beach tourim and ecotourism. Coastal tourist development in the region and in Tanzania has already been associated with environmental problems such as beach erosion and pollution, and not all of the social and economic changes associated with tourism have been perceived as positive by local communities. Analysis and monitoring of the situation at Bagamoyo will permit an asssessment of the effectiveness of natural resources and tourism policy and management stratergies and activities. Such infromation will be useful not only to Bagamoyo, but also elsewhere in coastal Tanzania.

Bookbinder, MP; Dinerstein, E; Rijal, A; Cauley, H; Rajouria, A

Conservation Biology [Conserv. Biol.]. Vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 1399-1404. Dec 1998.

Ecotourism is often viewed as effective for promoting the conservation of endangered species and habitats in developing countries. By creating economic incentives for impoverished villagers or their communities, ecotourism is thought to encourage local guardianship of biological resources. To assess ecotourism's effect on the income of villagers living near Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal, one of the most heavily visited parks in Asia, we randomly surveyed 996 households in 7 of the 36 Village Development Committees adjacent to the park. Despite a 1994 visitation rate exceeding 60,000 tourists--most from industrial nations--the economic impact of ecotourism on household income was minimal and limited to villages closest to the main park's entrance. Of the estimated 87,000 working-age people living near the park, less than 1100 were employed directly by the ecotourism industry. Only 6% of the surveyed households earned income directly or indirectly from ecotourism; the average annual salary of these households from ecotourism was $600. Ecotourism in Royal Chitwan National Park, as it is currently structured, provides little employment potential, has a marginal effect on household income, and offers few benefits for local people. Thus, it is not a panacea for long-term biodiversity conservation in this case. New policy changes, coupled with alternative approaches to the privately owned ecotourism industry, however, have the potential to redirect an appreciable amount of revenue to local development and strengthen local guardianship of endangered species and habitats. We urge that conservation biologists working in other areas ensure that well-defined mechanisms for profit sharing with local communities are in place before advocating ecotourism development. Where ecotourism programs already exist without such profit-sharing mechanisms, we urge conservationists to press for legislation that permits a percentage of profits to be spent on local community development.

Mehta, JN; Kellert, SR

Environmental Conservation [Environ. Conserv.]. Vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 320-333. Dec 1998.

Community-based conservation (CBC) has been projected as the most practical approach to stem biodiversity loss in developing countries. Since CBC is 'people-centred' and experience with it is relatively new, it is important to know the views of local communities regarding implemented policies and programmes. This paper examines the attitudes of local communities toward policy and programmes implemented by a project under the CBC approach in the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area of Nepal, based on a 1996 survey of 400 people living in it. Overall, respondents did not have a particularly favourable perception of the community development programmes implemented. Strong support existed for ecotourism development in the Conservation Area. Respondents overwhelmingly endorsed community forestry. Wildlife protection remained a low priority amongst a significant majority of respondents. Some demographic and socio-economic factors exerted important influences on the attitudes of respondents. This study suggests that the project should continue addressing local development needs, encourage women's participation in community forestry, work toward dispute settlement of community forest-user groups, and allow hunting of pest wild animals, if it wants to win the support of local communities for long-term biodiversity conservation goals.

Monroe, B; Poimoroo, J; Wilson, B

Taking a Look at California's Ocean Resources: An Agenda for the Future. Vol. 1, pp. 7-18. 1998.

The majority of the world's population lives within 60 km of a coast and, with the exception of China, this is certainly the case throughout the Pacific Rim. California, with over 20 million people in its Coastal Zone and 1100 miles of varied and often magnificent coastline, typifies the tension between development and preservation of the amenity that will become an increasingly significant segment of our economy. With tourism worldwide valued at over six trillion dollars and demand for "green tourism", "adventure tourism", "nature-based tourism", and "outdoor adventure" the fastest growing segment in that market, ecotourism will take on added dimensions as government and the private sector find it increasingly worthwhile to protect and restore our valuable coastal and marine assets. Watershed-based planning, solving problems of pollution and runoff, new research, innovative solutions to problems, and greater involvement of residents and visitors are just some of the tools that can be used to expand sustainable ecotourism opportunities. A nine step strategy and a planning template are proposed.

Yu, DW; Hendrickson, T; Castillo, A

Environmental Conservation [ENVIRON. CONSERV.]. Vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 130-138. Jun 1997.

Several authors have suggested that ecotourism can enhance the value of intact wildlands and thereby promote conservation. Two rainforest lodges dating from the 1970s and located in southeastern Amazonian Peru have been held up as early success stories in tourism-driven conservation, but a more recent assessment reveals that both lodges have since lost their rainforest reserves to encroachment. One of the major reasons for failure was that the national land laws in effect at the time did not allow the purchase of land titles. Recently, Peru has instituted a process for the purchase of land titles in the rainforest. One lodge has used the new land tenure laws with some success to create a rainforest reserve. The very attempt to buy land for purposes of conservation can promote encroachment and land-buying speculation, and the lodge's current agreement with its neighbours to provide a school in exchange for non-encroachment is fraught with moral hazards and appears unstable over the long term. Tourism can promote conservation primarily at the national level, and ecotourism projects in the Peruvian Amazon can stabilize land-use patterns at least in the short term. However, the conservation of habitat over the long-term will rest primarily on the ability of the State to enforce a consistent land use policy with regard to land tenure and Park protection.

Obua, J

Journal of Environmental Management [J. Environ. Manage.], vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 27-38, May 1997

Protected areas have great potential for recreation and ecotourism. It is surprising that relatively little work has been done on the evaluation of ecotourism potential of such areas. In many cases, recreation and ecotourism have been introduced into protected areas without prior evaluation which should have helped to reveal the ecological value and fragility of the area in the first place. It is observed in this study that development of campsites that involve much vegetation removal accounts for loss of woody species and reduces species composition in protected areas. Consequently, it is recommended that: (1) an early evaluation of the potential of natural areas should be done based on ecological information and should broadly consider the biological diversity often lost quickly through removal of vegetation during campsite development. (2) The removal of vegetation during campsite development should take into account the need for ecological preservation of protected areas much as they are deemed suitable for recreation and ecotourism. (3) Woody species composition in the recreation area should be monitored regularly to identify new or alien species that may be introduced as a result of human activities and which may ultimately destabilize the ecosystem structure and function.

Laughland, A; Caudill, J

This report focuses on the income and employment effects recreational visitors to refuges have on the economies of local regions. In addition to the economic effects of refuge hunting and fishing programs in local communities, it measures the economic impact of 'ecotourism'. An Introduction details the study's overall rationale, outlines its economic concepts, and describes the method and data sources used. The second section presents 15 sample refuge descriptions, highlighting the recreational activities enjoyed at each refuge, analyzing the regional economic factors involved, and putting the results of this analysis into perspective. A National View section discusses the overall results for the sample refuges and extrapolates them to a nationwide estimate. Finally, appendices provide background detail on the economic models used for the refuge estimates and the nationwide aggregation.

Menkhaus, S; Lober, DJ*

Journal of Environmental Management [J. Environ. Manage.], vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 1-10, May 1996

Tropical rainforests have many values beyond the timber they hold and their potential as sites for agriculture and cattle grazing. This study examined one of these additional values, rainforests as places for ecotourism. The study determined the value that tourists from the U.S. place on Costa Rican rainforests as ecotourism destinations, using the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve as a sampling site for tourism to Costa Rica's protected areas. The valuation method used was the travel cost model, a non-market valuation approach which uses travel expenses as a proxy for the value of the park. Data were collected by a survey of 240 U.S. tourists. This study found that the value placed by U.S. ecotourists on visiting Costa Rican rainforests was $1150 per visit. This value can be used in policy making to better assess all the alternative land uses available.

Kinnaird, MF; O'Brien, G

Oryx, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 65-73, 1996

Indonesia, like many other developing countries, is turning to ecotourism in an attempt to integrate the goals of development and nature conservation. Although ecotourism may be a valuable tool for preservation of biodiversity, it can have long-term negative effects on reserves, wildlife and local communities if improperly managed. In this study the authors evaluated ecotourism in the Tangkoko DuaSudara Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi, by examining trends in visitor numbers, the tourist experience, the distribution of tourist revenues, and tourist impact on the Sulawesi black macaque Macaca nigra and spectral tarsier Tarsier spectrum. The data collected showed that, although tourism is expanding rapidly, local benefits are not being fully realized, the reserve does not generate enough money to implement management, and primate behaviour is being affected. There is urgent need for a change in legal status of the reserve if ecotourism is to be managed. National park status would accommodate ecotourism planning and development, provide for greater participation by the local community, and allow for increased revenues for management.

Aylward, B; Allen, K; Echeverria, J; Tosi, J

Biodiversity and Conservation [BIODIVERS. CONSERV.], vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 315-343, 1996

The paper discusses the sustainability of the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve in the context of Costa Rican ecotourism. While the history of the Preserve is somewhat unique, the analysis of visitation, financial, ecological and economic factors provides a convincing case that tourism at the Preserve is sustainable. The experience of the Preserve is also put in the context of Costa Rican ecotourism, particularly to the national parks. The paper concludes that the Preserve has played a very important role in the development of Costa Rica as an ecotourism destination. Nonetheless, the failure of experience at the Preserve to inform recent changes in national park pricing policy reveal that Costa Rica has yet to fully capitalize on the experience gained and lessons learned at the Preserve.

Boonzaier, E

Biodiversity and Conservation [BIODIVERS. CONSERV.], vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 307-314, 1996

Local notions of conservation deserve closer scrutiny. We cannot assume that they naturally coincide with those of the tourist core; nor that they are automatically given higher priority when local populations are induced to participate in practices which conserve flora and fauna. A case study of the establishment of the Richtersveld National Park in Namaqualand, a remote arid region of South Africa, is used to argue that local attitudes to conservation and development (associated with tourism) can become increasingly cynical and ambivalent in the context of ecotourism. Furthermore, such attitudes are shaped less by economic inducements than by the often contradictory messages about conservation that are being communicated daily.

Kangas, P; Shave, M; Shave, P

Environmental Management [ENVIRON. MANAGE.], vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 669-673, 1995

The economic inputs and outputs for the Possum Point Biological Station in Belize during 1990-1992 are described to illustrate some aspects of an ecotourism operation. Eight hundred fifty-four people in 59 groups visited Possum Point during the study period to tour rain forests, estuaries, and coral reefs. The economic input to Possum Point from these groups increased from $74,552 in 1990 to $166,268 in 1992. Outputs were for license fees, capital improvements, goods and services, labor, fossil fuels, and development of a historic sugar mill site. An annual donation was also made to a scholarship fund for local Belizean students. The net cash balance of income and outputs changed from negative (-$6678)in 1990 to positive (+$4811) in 1992, suggesting development of the economic operation. Possum Point meets the economic criteria for ecotourism by feeding back some tourist monies for community and environmental support, particularly donations for the sugar mill site and the scholarship fund. Most of the outputs from Possum Point (about 80%) were retained in the local economy through employment and purchases, which have a positive influence on the local community. We conclude that ecotourism operations, such as Possum Point, offer important sustainable development opportunities for Belize.

Klein, ML; Humphrey, SR; Percival, HF

Conservation Biology [CONSERV. BIOL.], vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 1454-1465, 1995

Humans visiting natural areas often disturb wildlife, possibly displacing animals from desirable habitat. To hold ecotourism at acceptable levels refuge managers need to know which species are likely to be affected and which response occurs at different levels of disturbance. Displacement of waterbirds at J. N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge, Florida (U.S.A.), by specific human activities was demonstrated experimentally by Klein in 1993. We assessed the extent of this effect of ecotourism on the distribution of 38 species of waterbirds by surveying birds in plots of known distance from a dike along which wildlife tours occurred. Most resident species were less sensitive to disturbance than were migrants. Migrant ducks were most sensitive when they first arrived, mid-October to mid-December, usually remaining more than 80 m from the drive, even at low levels of human visitation. Herons, egrets, Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), and Anhingas (Anhinga anhinga) were most likely to remain close to areas of high human activity. Shorebirds were displaced at intermediate distance and visitation levels. Mottled Ducks (Anas fulvigula) and several of the ardeids seemed to include two groups differing in behavior, one habituated to humans and one sensitive to disturbance. Public education and changes in management practices are needed to reduce disturbance. Guided tours and low-disturbance zones where people stay in their cars could reduce the negative effects of tourists, especially in the fall when migrants arrive. The number of human visitors may have to be reduced or the wildlife drive closed on certain days during the tourist season.

Walpole, MJ; Goodwin, HJ; Ward, KG

Conservation Biology [Conserv. Biol.]. Vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 218-227. Feb 2001.

Protected areas are under increasing pressure to provide economic justification for their existence, particularly in developing countries where demand for land and natural resources is high. Nature-based tourism offers a mechanism to generate substantial benefits from protected areas for both governments and local communities, and ecotourism is increasingly promoted as a sustainable use of protected areas. The extent to which ecotourism offsets the costs of a protected area has rarely been examined. We used financial data from Komodo National Park, Indonesia, and a willingness-to-pay questionnaire of independent visitors to (1) examine the financial contribution of tourism in offsetting the costs of tourism and wider management and (2) assess the effect of hypothetical fee increases on park revenues, visitation patterns, and local economies. Although only 6.9% of park management costs were recovered, visitors were willing to pay over 10 times the current entrance fee, indicating a substantial potential for increased revenue. The potential negative effect of large fee increases on visitor numbers and the resultant effect on local economic benefits from tourism may limit the extent to which greater financial benefits from Komodo National Park (KNP) can be realized. Our results suggest that a moderate, tiered increase in entrance fees is most appropriate, and that partial revenue retention by KNP would help demonstrate the conservation value of tourism to both visitors and managers and has the potential to increase visitors' willingness to pay.

Brock, RE

FIFTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON AQUATIC HABITAT ENHANCEMENT., 1994, pp. 1181-1188, Bulletin of Marine Science [BULL. MAR. SCI.], vol. 55, no. 2-3

Artificial reefs used as submarine and dive tour sites receive less fishing pressure from the public because the high use patterns by dive tour firms preclude much of the fishing activity. Such reefs when used as part of a non-destructive "eco-tourism" dive package provide significantly greater economic return than when used for commercial fishery purposes. Annual gross revenue from the commercial fishery of one open-access dive tour artificial reef analyzed in this study is 4% of the annual pre-tax profit of dive tours operating on this same reef. Moreover, the daily estimated catch from this reef is equivalent to the estimated annual sustainable yield, suggesting that the fishery is capitalizing on fishes aggregating to the reef rather than in situ production. If the rationale for artificial reef development is economic gain and a viable tourist industry presently exists, reefs deployed for non-consumptive purposes may provide the best use, especially when fishery resources are in a state of decline.

Weaver, DB

GeoJournal, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 457-465, 1994

Ecotourism-related strategies can serve to enhance the tourism industries of small Caribbean islands, which are presently dominated by a 3S (sea, sand, sun) product. In the first place, the principles of Alternative Tourism can be applied to 3S tourism in order to minimize negative environmental impacts. Secondly, diversionary ecotourism opportunities can be promoted to diversify the tourism product, thus providing a nature-oriented alternative to resort-based tourists. Thirdly, regional ecotourism, catering to ecotourists, can be fostered in mountainous interiors, peripheral islands, undeveloped coastlines, rural agricultural areas and in offshore reefs. A fourth strategy, exemplified by Dominica, entails a comprehensive ecotourism approach for destinations in which 3S tourism is undesired or unsuited.

Navrud, S; Mungatana, ED

Ecological Economics [ECOL. ECON.], vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 135-151, 1994

Few environmental valuation studies have been carried out in developing countries. This study shows that the Travel Cost (TC) and the Contingent Valuation (CV) methods can be successfully applied to value natural resources in developing countries. These two independent methods were used to estimate the recreational value of wildlife viewing, which is a valid, but very conservative, estimate of the total economic value of the wildlife species. The annual recreational value of wildlife viewing in Lake Nakuru National Park in Kenya was found to be 7.5-15 million USD. The flamingos accounted for more than 1/3 of the value. Recognizing that this is only one of many parks in Kenya, and that wildlife viewing is becoming an important part of the global trend of increasing ecotourism, this clearly shows that sustainable management of wildlife resources could provide a very significant and much needed revenue source for developing countries in the future. The challenge for the developing countries is to find ways to realize this economic potential, which also secures the preservation of wildlife.

Blane, JM; Jackson, R

Environmental Conservation [ENVIRON. CONSERV.], vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 267-269, 1994

Ecologically-oriented tourism, or ecotourism, is experiencing rapid world-wide growth. Ecotourism involving wildlife observation calls for strict environmental monitoring and management if the wildlife resource is to be sustained. Concern is now being expressed over the disturbance that ecotourists can inflict on marine mammals, such as Gray Whales (Eschrichiius glaucus) in southern California and Mexico, humpbacks (Megaptera spp.) in Alaska and Hawaii, and Belugas or White Whales (Delphinapterus leucas) in Alaska and the St Lawrence River estuary in Canada. This short communication reports on research on the impact of ecotourist boats on the Beluga Whales of the St Lawrence River estuary in Quebec, Canada, ending with recommendations for its management there.

Wearing, S

Environmentalist, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 125-135, 1993

This paper outlines an ecotourism project undertaken in the Santa Elena community in the Monteverde region of Costa Rica. The community is seeking to establish a rainforest reserve on a parcel of land that has been permanently leased to their high school by the Costa Rican Government. The Community and Youth Challenge International are developing an ecotourism project that will provide a wider economic basis for the area and employment for students graduating from the high school. This project seeks to achieve sustainable development and fulfil the development requirements of the population surrounding the project. This is in the belief that it is only when conservation projects benefit local communities, and are set up with an infrastructure that vests control within local communities, that genuine ecotourism is achieved.

Walpole, MJ

Animal Conservation [Anim. Conserv.]. Vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 67-73. Feb 2001.

Large carnivores are key visitor attractions in protected areas, but are difficult to see. Thus, supplementary feeding is sometimes used to attract them to viewing sites. Such intervention is contentious but its effects have rarely been examined. This paper analyses a case study of supplementary feeding in Komodo National Park, Indonesia. Using data from daily and annual Komodo dragon censuses, feeding records and financial accounts, the effects of feeding and its cessation on dragon numbers, tourist viewing opportunities and local community benefits were examined. Regular feeding caused dragon numbers to increase at the feeding site, but not year-round. Cessation of feeding caused numbers to decline again to natural levels. However, tourists were less likely to see dragons at the feeding site after cessation, and local community revenues declined with the loss of a market for goats. Solutions lie in finding less intrusive means for tourists to view dragons, and enabling local people to become involved in tourism through training, recruitment and the development of alternative markets.

Jacobson, SK; Robles, R

Environmental Management [ENVIRON. MANAGE.], vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 701-713, 1992

A tour guide training program was developed for rural communities near Costa Rica's Tortuguero National Park to respond to the impacts of the 24-fold increase in park visitation in the past decade, to involve local communities in resource management, and to provide regional environmental education. A pilot training course and guide program involving 12 Tortuguero residents demonstrated that a tour guide program: helped mitigate negative tourism impacts on Tortuguero National Park's natural resources, particularly by regulating tourists on the park's 35-km beach used for nesting by endangered sea turtles; provided environmental education to an important segment of the local community not traditionally reached through school or government development projects; provided environmental information to tourists, provided local economic benefits through lucrative part-time employment, thereby allowing local people to participate more fully in the tourism system.

Guevara, Jose Roberto Q

Convergence, 1996, 29, 3, spring, 24-40

Evaluates a participatory action research project in Halls Gap, a small tourist community in the Grampians National Park in Victoria, Australia, designed to encourage the local community to actively participate in ecotourism planning. Participatory tourism planning models are discussed that emphasize the importance of early & ongoing participation of a variety of interest groups to empower community members. Slow initial participation in the Halls Gap project was attributed to three factors: (1) lack of a sense of project ownership by the community; (2) an absence of an urgent, motivating issue; & (3) an incompletely understood ecotourism framework. Methods for facilitating the initiation process are discussed. Additionally, preliminary learning outcomes for community members were identified in a new understanding of their social realities, a better understanding of the learning process, & an awareness of new possibilities in addressing their social realities. 25 References. S. Barrera.

De Los Monteros, RL-E

Biodiversity and Conservation [Biodivers. Conserv.]. Vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 1539-1550. Sep 2002.

In natural protected areas, ecotourism could provide the impetus and economic investment for improved conservation of species and habitats. However, few studies have attempted to characterise sustainable ecotourism and positive examples of ecotourism are still rare. This study conducted a series of interviews at the local, regional, and national level in order to identify general feeling and concerns of government and non-government institutions with respect to ecotourism. Questionnaires were used to assess the extent of fulfillment of ecotourism principles by tour operators in protected areas of La Paz Bay. Government and non-government institutions interviewed expected ecotourism to be a means for regional development, a conservation strategy and compatible with conservation activities. Ecotourism operators surveyed were more likely to be considered ecotourism ventures, reaching on average 10 indicators ( sigma approximately 3, n = 14), and were found to be providing, in some way, benefits to the conservation of the area. Current ecotourism activities may provide benefits for conservation, but are not comparable to the costs involved in the conservation of the protected areas concerned. Hence, current ecotourism activities have not met the expectations of the protected area managers. The role that ecotourism can play as a conservation strategy depends on the strategies designed by protected area managers to take tour operators to share the costs and benefits of environmental services.

Munasinghe, M

Ambio. Stockholm [AMBIO.], vol. 22, no. 2-3, pp. 126-135, 1993

Reconciling and operationalizing the three main concepts of sustainable development-the economic, ecological, and sociocultural-poses formidable problems. Environmental economics and valuation can play a key role in helping to incorporate concerns about biodiversity loss into the traditional decision-making framework. A case study from Madagascar examines the impact of a new national park on tropical forests by using both conventional and newer techniques to economically value damage to forests and watersheds, timber and nontimber forest products, other impacts on local inhabitants, impacts on biodiversity, and ecotourism benefits. In the Sri Lanka case study, an integrated energy-environmental analysis was developed, which helps to eliminate projects with unacceptable impacts, and redesign others. Where economic valuation of environmental impacts was not possible, multiple attribute evaluation techniques were used. Improving the incomes and welfare of local communities, especially poor ones, while simultaneously preserving physical and biological systems, offers opportunities for developing countries to pursue all three goals of sustainable development in a complementary manner.

Ogutu, ZA

Land Degradation & Development [Land Degrad. Dev.]. Vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 251-256. May-Jun 2002.

This paper presents the impact of ecotourism on livelihood and natural resource management in the periphery of Amboseli Biosphere Reserve in Kenya. Ecotourism initiatives that have been introduced by Porini Ecotourism, a private investor, are benefiting Eselenkei Group Ranch in terms of income, improved infrastructure, employment opportunities and exposure. Over US$5000 is received annually as land rent, gate fee and bed charges. Twenty-six Maasai men are employed for the upkeep of project facilities. The community's capacity to facilitate resource-related conflicts has improved following support from development institutions. An expanding livelihood base is reducing local vulnerability to disaster and people-wildlife conflicts. The numbers of resident wildlife species in the conservation area have increased due to regeneration of woody species and reduced frequency of livestock. Despite the achievements, ecotourism is threatened by cultivation. The latter is jeopardizing conservation efforts, as the area frequented by wildlife is being lost and people-wildlife conflicts intensified. Another dilemma is that the Eselenkei community is not effectively participating in ecotourism a situation that is associated with inadequate management and negotiation skills in the group ranch committee. The latter requires leadership and microenterprise management skills if earnings from ecotourism are to be effectively invested in alternative sources of livelihood, to reduce current and potential conflicts. There is also need to build the community's capacity for the promotion of activities that compliment ecotourism. Frequent breakdown of community boreholes lead to dependence on the conservation area for water during prolonged drought, intensifying conflicts between investock and wildlife.

Grenier, C

Proceedings of the seventh Workshops of the tropical Geography of the national Commitee of French geographers, Brest 11-12-13 september 1997: Vol. 1 -- resource management, interrelationships, life and urbanization. Actes des 7eme Journees de Geographie tropicale du Comite national de Geographes francais -- UGI Commission Espaces tropicaux et leur Developpement, Brest, 11-12-13 septembre 1997: Vol. 1 -- Gestion des ressources, vie de relation et urbanisation. pp. 169-179. 1998.

Ecotourism myths: the Galapagos Islands case. It is generally thought that ecotourism educates the travellers, is respectuous of the natural places visited and helps the sustainable developpement of the populations living in their surroundings. But in the Galapagos Islands, "ecotourism" profitability comes from the rapid turn over of an officially income selected clientele. These "ecotourists" visit the national park during very brief cruises on board of increasingly fast, big and luxuous ships. The weight of the big outside companies in the Galapagos touristic market means shrinking economic income for the local population, thought the number of the national park visitors rises every year. The conservationnist institutions working in the Galapagos Islands rely on tourism for a big part of their budgets. This causes in any problems with the insulars about the other uses of the national park, which entered into a fast process of degradation due to the lack of an efficient surveillance. Ecotourism appears thus to be an attempt to replace the public authorities by the market for the national parks protection, the aquatic environment protection as for the sustainable developpement of local populations. In the Galapagos Islands, ecotourism is a myth masking a conservation failure of heavy ecological and social consequences.

Emory, J

Pacific Discovery [PAC. DISCOVERY.], pp. 40-44, 1990

In 1959, when Ecuador designated over 90 percent of the Galapagos Islands a national park, the international cadre of biologists and conservationists dedicated to the area declared them secure. The islands, straddling the equator six hundred miles off Ecuador's Pacific coast, contain a dazzling array of endemic plant and animal species that evolved in isolation from other ecosystems, and from man, for hundreds of thousands of years. Today, however, these magnificent islands may be suffering from their success as sweethearts of the international ecotourism circuit.